Jomon Earthenware

The history of Japanese ceramics begins with Jomon earthenware, said to be the world’s oldest earthenware. The name "Jomon" is based on the term "cord-marked pottery" which was used by E.S. Morse, known for the excavation of the Omori Kaizuka shell mound. According to radiocarbon dating, the oldest examples are about 12000 years old. Jomon earthenware was produced over a 10000-year period, which is divided into six chronological categories (the Incipient, Initial, Early, Middle, Late and Final periods) according to changes in the forms of the ware. It is also divided in detail by region, and so when we speak of "Jomon earthenware," we are actually describing a wide variety of pottery. Representative examples are the pots with applied bean-like motifs and ridges from the Incipient period, flame-shaped earthenware from the Middle period, Kamegaoka style earthenware from the Later period and the clay figures which were made from the Middle period through the Final period. Jomon earthenware was generally formed by coiling and fired to 800-900 degrees in the open without using kilns.

Yayoi Earthenware

Yayoi earthenware followed Jomon earthenware, and it is thought to have been first made in around northern Kyushu in the third century B.C. The name 'Yayoi" comes from a shell mound discovered in 1884 in Mukogaoka, Yayoi-cho, Hongo, Tokyo. One of the reasons for the rise of Yayoi earthenware was the shift from hunting and gathering to an agricultural existence, and vessels appropriate to agricultural life began to appear. Storage jars, cooking pots, and eating and drinking vessels such as stemmed cups are basic examples of Yayoi earthenware. In some places, the forms and decorations follow Jomon traditions. Yayoi earthenware is divided in to three periods, the Early, Middle, and Late periods. The Early period Ongagawa type earthenware and Middle period Sugu type earthenware are representative of Yayoi ware.

Haji Ware

Following Yayoi earthenware came Haji ware of the Kofun period. The name Hajiki (Haji ware) actually comes from written records such as Wamyoruijusho and Engishiki of the Heian period, but the name is a general term for primitive unglazed earthenware made in the Kofun period and later. Like Jomon and Yayoi earthenware, Haji ware was formed by coiling and fired in oxidation at a low temperature, the forms following after those of the Yayoi period. Haji ware is broadly divided into ritual vessels and daily utensils, but the development of Sue ware had a great influence on function. Basically, Sue ware was used as storage vessels, and Haji ware was used for cooking.

Sue Ware

Sue ware traces its roots to the high-fired stoneware of the Korean peninsula, and the Korean influence is strong in early Sue ware forms. The appearance of Sue ware marks the first major technological advance in the history of Japanese ceramics. Innovations included the use of the wheel to produce large numbers of pots, and the introduction of the anagama (hill-side kiln) which made it possible to fire at high temperatures in reduction. The new pottery techniques which were transmitted to Japan from the Korean peninsula originated in the gray ware of Shang dynasty China. A well known area where Sue ware was produced is the group of ancient kiln sites in Suemura in the hilly area of southern Osaka. Pottery activity is thought to have begun there in the Kofun period in the early 5th century, after which the new technology spread to the rest of the country. Vessel forms changed greatly in the 7th century, when potters began to make vessels modeled on metal ware from China and Korea. Sue ware began to decline in the late Nara period with the development of pottery glazed with ash and other glazes; the technology of Sue ware, however, formed the foundation of the medieval pottery which was to come. Along with medieval wood-fired ware with natural glaze, this ware can be classified as one kind of stoneware.

Earthenware in Medieval and Modern Times

From around the 6th century, black earthenware, which can be considered a branch of Haji ware, appeared in eastern Japan, and it was also produced in the west of the Kinai region beginning in the 8th century, following the decline of Sue ware. From the 11th century, especially in western Japan, gaki bowls and plates, considered the successor to black ware, were produced in large amounts. In medieval times, Haji ware was used mainly for small offering plates and cooking pots. Haji wares continued to be produced as offering vessels and roasting utensils through the modern age until the present.

2. Stoneware

Early Stoneware

Stoneware originated in Japan with the development of green-glazed ware and other glazed pottery in the second half of the 7th century. Influenced by Chinese and Korean wares, Japanese glazed ware was not an original innovation. However, viewing the development of glazed stoneware in the early ages of ancient Japan, we can imagine the admiration for Chinese and Korean culture as well as the vigor to assimilate advanced culture.

Pottery of the Nara and Heian periods (538-1185) can be divided into two types: low-fired lead-glazed ware such as three-color-glazed or green-glazed ware, and high-fired ash-glazed ware. The former, evolved under the influence of three-color ware of Chinese Tang and green-glazed pottery from the Korean peninsula, includes the Nara three-color ware, a notable example of which being the Shosoin three-color ware. According to historical records, they were called shi, shiki, or aoshi at the time. Production of the latter type, high-fired ash-glazed pottery, known as shirashi at the time began in a large scale in the second half of the 8th century in Sanage kilns, Aichi Prefecture. These two types of ware represent the first Japanese pottery to be using man-made glazes.

(1)Low-Fired Pottery with Colored Glazes

Low-fired colored pottery is ware glazed with lead-based glazes which use copper, iron or white stone as colorants to achieve green, yellow or white colors. Archaeological excavations conducted up until now tell us that production of green-glazed ware began in Japan in the 7th century, preceding the production of three-color ware. The production technique of green-glazed ware was imported from the Korean peninsula, in which the technique was acquired from China by the 5th century.

Chinese Tang three-color ware, after which Nara three-color ware was modeled, has been excavated mainly from ruins of temples across Japan, indicating that although in China such ware was used mainly for mortuary purposes, in Japan, Tang three-color ware was used widely in Buddhist rituals. Nara three-color ware, known for its wide variety of forms and functions, has been excavated in large quantities from sites related to religious rituals, giving us an idea of the specific ways in which it was used. The well known Shosoin three-color ware was originally used at Todaiji Temple as religious utensils; there are records that mention such ware being used in the consecration ceremony of the Great Buddha at Todaiji in 752. There are also many excavated examples of this type of ware which were used as funerary urns to hold bones after cremation. These urns are of a unique shape and are known as yakko. This Nara three-colored ware is believed to have been fired at an official kiln in the capital.

Nara three-color ware disappeared by the latter half of the 8th century to be replaced by two-color and green-glazed pottery, gradually declining in quality. At the beginning of the Heian period (794~1185) in the 9th century, monochrome green-glazed ware was popular. Green-glazed ware is known to have been fired during the Heian period at the Sanage and Bihoku kilns in Aichi Prefecture and the Nagato kilns in Yamaguchi Prefecture. There are many examples of Heian period green-glazed ware which were imitations of metal ware as well as imitations of Chinese Yue celadon, which was beginning to be imported to Japan at the time. Among the reasons for the popularity of green-glazed ware were the fascination of metal vessels and Chinese celadon, and the desire to produce vessels as substitutions for them. Green-glazed ware in the Heian period, however, disappeared by the first half of the eleventh century.

(2)Ash-Glazed Pottery

Ash-glazed pottery is vitrified stoneware covered with glaze made from the ash of plants and fired to a high temperature. It was first produced in the second half of the 8th century at the Sanage kilns in Aichi Prefecture, based on the production techniques of Sue ware. Although ash-glazed ware already existed among Sue ware, it was the coincidental result of fly ash inside the wood-burning kiln being deposited on the surface of the pots. Based on knowledge gained from experience, the potters gradually began to load pots in the kiln conscious of the natural ash effects. Pottery fired at this stage is called primitive ash-glazed ware, and it occupies a position between natural ash-glazed ware and man-made ash-glazed ware, but the delineation between the two types is not always clear.

The production of ash-glazed ware began at the Sanage kilns, and spread from northwestern Aichi Prefecture and southern Gifu Prefecture to the Tokai region. The first ash-glazed pottery was based on Sue ware forms, and there are examples of long-necked bottles, ewer, and short-necked jars. The kilns also fired imitations of Chinese Yue-type celadon. Around the end of the 11th century, the Sanage kilns ceased firing ash-glazed ware and shifted to mass production of the “yama-chawan” or unglazed daily functional ware. Ash-glazed ware disappeared from the Tokai region by the 12th century.

Pottery of the Medieval Era

The medieval era in Japan lasted from the end of the Heian period through the Kamakura and Muromachi periods. While continuing the traditions established by ancient kilns, this period also saw the establishment of a new system of pottery production. Haji-type earthenware continued to be fired, along with the following two kinds of stoneware: Sue-type ware and shiki-type ware.

(1)Sue-type Stoneware

Medieval pottery fired in the Heian period based on Sue ware can be classified into two types: gray-black ware which was fired in reduction, as Sue ware was, and red-brown ware which began to appear later by switching the firing condition into oxidation. The former was fired at several kilns with the Suzu kiln (Ishikawa Prefecture) being the first on the list, followed by the Uozumi kiln (Hyogo Prefecture) and Kameyama kiln (Okayama Prefecture). Bizen ware (Okayama Prefecture) is representative of the latter type. The form of both types centered on vessels such as storage jars and mortars, and the products of these kilns together with Haji-type ware formed the basic set of daily utensils. The Suzu kiln developed a unique style of gray-black vessels decorated by combing or paddling, while Bizen ware was characterized by its substantialness and a unique reddish earth color. While both of these wares were Sue-type pottery, they developed completely different styles, each with its own individual appeal. The two wares were to meet with different fates, however. In the early Kamakura period, the Bizen kilns succeeded in switching from reduction firing to oxidation firing, establishing a tradition which was continued into modern times. On the other hand, the reduction firing Suzu kilns, under pressure from Echizen ware, disappeared in the medieval era. These Sue-type wares are fired at high temperatures and along with Sue ware, are often classified as types of stoneware.

(2)Shiki-type pottery

(a)Pottery of the yama-chawan type

While ash-glazed pottery disappeared by the end of the 11th century, its place was taken by the coarse unglazed stoneware known as yama-chawan ware (shirashi-type pottery). This ware was produced across the Tokai region. Yama-chawan ware, also popularly known as Gyoki ware or Toshiro ware, was unglazed ware produced in large quantities for daily use. At first, the forms centered on bowls and plates, but as imitations of imported Chinese porcelain gradually increased, forms such as four-handled jars began to appear. Over 2000 sites of kilns which produced this ware are known today in Aichi, Gifu, Mie and Shizuoka Prefectures. The ware continued to be fired through the middle of the 15th century.

(b)Yakishime stoneware

From the end of the Heian period into the late 11th and 12th centuries, the production of yakishime (high-fired) unglazed stoneware such as jars and mortars began in locations from the Tokai region to the Hokuriku region, the Tohoku region and in western Japan. Notable kilns firing yakishime stoneware were located in Tokoname, Atsumi (Aichi Prefecture), Echizen (Fukui Prefecture), Shigaraki (Shiga Prefecture), Tamba (Hyogo Prefecture) and Kaga (Ishikawa Prefecture). While the techniques followed in the path of early ash-glazed ware, stoneware was fired at high temperatures in oxidation. Although the works were unglazed, they were covered with deposits of natural ash from the wood firing, an effect which became one of the attractions of these pots. We can observe that at the time, glaze was already recognized for its decorative effects. At the same time, many jars known as kokumonko (jar with incised decoration) with a variety of designs reflecting the aesthetics of yamato-e were also being produced. There are also large numbers of sutra outer containers and urns used to contain bones after cremation which have been excavated.

(c)Glazed Pottery

The Seto-Mino area was a center of pottery production in medieval times, and it is noteworthy that this was the only area where glazed pottery was fired at that time. It is thought that stoneware was first fired in Seto at the end of the 12th century, based on the Sanage and yama-chawan kilns. Iron glazes and brown glazes were added to the already-developed ash glazes, and using decorative techniques such as impression, incision and appliqué, imitations of Chinese ceramic wares including celadon of the Northern Song, Yuan and Ming (Longquan type), porcelain and qingbai ware (Jingdezhen type) were made in large quantities. The Seto kilns fired a wide variety of wares from daily utensils to Buddhist ritual vessels, and from the 13th century, high-grade items such as four-handled jars, vases, and ewers were also produced. Together with Chinese imports, these wares were made to satisfy the demand of the ruling class. Also, with the sudden rise in popularity of the tea ceremony from the late Kamakura to the Muromachi period and the artistic preference on karamono or “Chinese things”, tenmoku tea bowls and tea caddies imitating Chinese ceramic wares were produced in the 14th century. In the 15th century, the center of production of Seto-type glazed pottery shifted to the east Mino area in Gifu Prefecture.

Pottery of the Modern Age

(1)Pottery of the Muromachi and Momoyama Periods– Flourishing Production of the Tea Ware

(a)Seto-Type Glazed Pottery - Seto and Mino Ware

In the latter half of the Muromachi period, the Mino kilns began to fire works which were completely different from the Chinese imitations. Representative of this new type of ware were Setoguro (black Seto) and Kiseto (yellow Seto). Setoguro ware is generally a cylindrical tea bowl covered with a deep black glaze known as hikidashi-guro. Kiseto is a type of ware glazed with a yellow glaze and green accents known as tanpan which has a unique texture and a well-balanced form. These new wares were born as the result of rising demand for utensils that meet the artistic taste for the tea ceremony, which was shifting from the favor of Chinese wares to the preference for “wabi-suki (wabi-cha)” or the concept of more restrained and rustic beauty among the townspeople in Kyoto and Sakai. After this, from the end of the Muromachi throughout the Momoyama period, the status of Japanese pottery (as opposed to karamono) in the tea ceremony improved dramatically, which led to an increase in production of Japanese style tea utensils. At the same time, Korean ceramics, especially tea bowls known as Korai-jawan became immensely popular, providing great influence on the style of Japanese tea bowls and utensils.

The Seto and Mino kilns underwent a technical revolution at the end of the Muromachi period, as semi-underground anagama kilns were replaced by ogama, or large above-ground kilns, making it possible to fire large quantities of pots at high temperatures. As a result, from the Tensho era (1573-92) through the Bunroku and Keicho era (1592-1600) the variety of the wares, mainly for the tea ceremony, fired at the Mino kilns increased further, making Mino the largest center of Momoyama pottery. New techniques included Shino ware, which was a type of pottery with iron decoration covered with a feldspathic glaze, the first white glaze developed in Japan. In the middle of the Keicho era (1596-1614), a kiln with greater thermal efficiency, the multi-chambered climbing kiln, was introduced from Karatsu and built at the Motoyashiki kiln in Toki, Gifu prefecture. This enabled an even greater number of ware to be fired in response to increased demand. Taking advantage of the kilns' improved thermal efficiency, Oribe ware began to be produced in greater quantities. Oribe ware was characterized by the combination of a vivid green glaze and iron painted decoration applied to unconventional forms emphasizing the beauty of the irregular. Oribe ware broadened the possibilities of pottery by creating a style of its own, incorporating the latest trends of the day, such as Western tastes and Tsujigahana, a design usually adopted in kimono. Oribe ware is named after FURUTA Oribe (1543-1615), a warrior and tea master. This signifies the tremendous cultural influence of tea masters during this period.

(b)Porous Lead-Glazed Pottery - Raku Ware

Raku tea bowls were first made by Chojiro (?-1589) in Kyoto under the direction of SEN no Rikyu (1522-91), the beginning of the Raku family who have been dedicating their lives to creating tea bowls through successive generations even now. "Soeki-nari" and "ima-yaki" teabowls first appear in records of tea ceremonies in Tensho 14 (1586); these notes are now believed to refer to Raku teabowls made by Chojiro. The originator of Raku ware, Chojiro I, was originally a maker of roof files. It is fascinating to note the stark contrast between the extraordinary craftsmanship of one of his early works "Ridgepole tile in the shape of lion" (dated 1574) and his unpretentious tea bowls. Raku ware is a low-fired lead-glazed ware which has a soft and porous body. One unique feature is that it is hand built rather than thrown on the wheel. Raku ware is mainly composed of two types of tea bowls: black raku and red raku. Some Raku ware is two-colored or three-colored, implying the influence from the production techniques of Chinese three-color ware which were being imported from southern China at the time. Kyoto's Tamamizu ware and Kanazawa's Ohi ware are descended from Raku ware. In the Edo period, HONAMI Koetsu (1558-1637), known for his genius for painting and crafts, learned Raku techniques from Jokei, Chojiro's successor. His rich sense of artistry and free, refined style gave new possibilities to the creation of tea bowls. Koetsu's tea bowls are highly appraised even today.

(c)Unglazed Stoneware - Bizen, Shigaraki, and lga Wares

Unglazed yakishime ware, which had centered on the production of jars and mortars since medieval times, began to receive more attention as the rustic wabi-cha style of tea became more popular. Shigaraki and Bizen ware were introduced to the tea ceremony from early on among the Japanese-style ware, and there are references to a Shigaraki Mizusashi (shigaraki water jar) and Mizusashi Hisen-mono (water jar of Bizen ware) in records of tea gatherings. In many cases, utensils made for everyday use were adopted in the tea ceremony, such as a domestic vessel known as an onioke (cylindrical jar) which was used as a water jar in the tea ceremony. There are many fine examples of water jars and flower vases of Bizen ware, which has been prized for a reddish tinge in the body color, earthy texture of the surface and the solid, dynamic form. Water jars and flower vases of lga ware, made in the area around Ueno and Ayama in Mie Prefecture, also drew people’s attention. They were valued for their bold style, the exact opposite of uniformity, and were one representative of the preference for the "beauty of irregularity." The natural ash glaze known as biidoro (derived from the Portuguese term vidro for glass) and burnt reddish black color of fired Iga clay is especially appealing.

(d)Korean-Style Glazed Pottery - Karatsu Ware

Karatsu ware is believed to have originated in the Tensho era (1573-92), from a jar dated 1592 and archaeological excavations at various sites. Karatsu ware began to be fired in earnest in the Bunroku and Keicho eras (1592-1614) when Korean potters were brought to work in the Hizen region in Saga and Nagasaki Prefectures. The first kilns were located in the Kishidake Mountains; here, large-scale climbing kilns known as noborigama were introduced. In the middle of the Keicho era (1596-1614), the introduction of efficient Korean-style multi-chamber climbing kilns made mass production possible. This type of kiln, which was not native to Japan, soon spread to Mino and other parts of the country. With the ability to fire large quantities of pottery in the multi-chambered climbing kilns, Karatsu potters produced a variety of ware, which was distributed across the country, and Karatsu ware soon became well-known as a new center for production of glazed pottery. The Karatsu style developed under the influence of Korean and Mino pottery, and many fine tea ceremony utensils were produced there, such as imitations of Korai-jawan, along with water jars, flower vases, and mukozuke bowls. In addition, common tableware was produced in large quantities, so that the output of Karatsu kilns eventually overtook those of Mino in national market share. Representative of Karatsu ware is E-Garatsu, which is ware decorated with underglaze iron and covered with a feldspathic glaze. Karatsu potters used many techniques imported from the Korean peninsula, including the paddling technique, the use of kick wheels, and inlaid decoration techniques. In western Japan, the term Karatsu-mono (wares from Karatsu) became a term meaning pottery in general.

In addition to Karatsu, other kilns were established in various regions of western Japan producing Korean-style glazed pottery including Takatori (Fukuoka Prefecture), Satsuma (Kagoshima Prefecture), Yatsushiro (Kumamoto Prefecture), Agano (Fukuoka Prefecture), Hagi (Yamaguchi Prefecture) and Imbe (Okayama Prefecture). These kilns made important contributions to the development of Japanese ceramics.

(2)Pottery of the Edo Period - Kyoto Ware

From the end of the Keicho era through the Genna era (1615-23), in Kyoto, Awataguchi ware and Kiyomizu ware were produced in addition to Raku ware. In 1647 NONOMURA Ninsei (dates unknown) began firing ware at Omuro kiln in front of Ninnaji temple, and from around 1656 pottery with overglaze enamel decoration began to be fired, signifying a new type of Edo-period pottery. The idea of decorating stoneware with overglaze enamels is thought to have been inspired by the overglaze enamel-decorated porcelain which was already being made in Hizen at the time. The ware is also thought to have been influenced by the colored glaze technology of Kochi-type ware (a Japanese term for three-color glazed ware from southern China produced in between the late Ming and early Qing), which was already being imported. The technique of decorating stoneware with overglaze enamels is not found even in China, an indication of Ninsei's originality.

Under the patronage of KANAMORI Sowa (1584-1656), Ninsei developed consummate skill in forming his vessels along with a delicate painting technique, perfecting a refined, elegant style favored by the ruling dynasty. The name Ninsei is a combination of the first characters in the Ninnaji temple's name and Ninsei's real name, Seiemon. The fact that he signed his pots himself with the "Ninsei" name is an indication of his pride as a potter. Ninsei's apprentice, OGATA Kenzan (1663-1743), established a kiln in (1699) at Narutaki lzumidani. Since this location was to the northwest of Kyoto, he took the character “inui" (northwest) for his name and called himself Kenzan. Kenzan developed a unique pictorial style using white slip and underglaze pigments. His work was influenced greatly by his older brother and representative painter of the Rinpa school, OGATA Korin (1658-1716). There are many examples of collaborations between the two, where Korin painted designs on Kenzan' s pottery. Like Ninsei, Kenzan signed his name on his works in a unique calligraphic style, and this came to have value as a kind of "brand name." Kenzan compiled the techniques he learned from Ninsei into the manual Toko Hitsuyo, which became a sort of bible of Kyoto ware pottery. At the end of the Edo period, porcelain was first fired in Kyoto by OKUDA Eisen (1753-1811), under whose tutelage the literary figure AOKI Mokubei (1767-1833) began to make pottery according to the Qing Chinese text on pottery Tao Shuo. In addition, renowned craftsmen such as NIN’AMI Dohachi (1783-1855), who made ware in a wide variety of styles, and EIRAKU Hozen (1795-1854), who incorporated Chinese decorative techniques such as kinrande, Kochi-style design and underglaze decoration into tea utensils also made contributions to the development of the Kyoto ware tradition, which continues even today.

3. Porcelain

The Beginning of Porcelain

Archaeological excavations since the 1970s have supported the theory that porcelain was first fired in Japan in the Karatsu pottery kilns in the 1610s. In 1637, the Nabeshima clan, who were aware of the commercial value of porcelain, reorganized and consolidated the Arita kilns. After this, the kilns' output switched to porcelain, and with the Nabeshima clan's aggressive support and protection, Arita porcelain developed rapidly. While the influence of ware from the Korean peninsula on early Arita porcelain has been pointed out, large quantities of porcelain from private kilns of late Ming dynasty China were being imported to Japan as well, which also seem to have provided great influence on Arita. In fact, the production of Arita blue-and-white ware began at quite an early stage. The first porcelain fired at Arita until 1649 is known as Early Imari ware. Its style is simple, free and powerful, the quality highly esteemed. The name Imari (ware) comes from the fact that the porcelain fired around the Arita region was chiefly shipped out of the port at Imari. Recently, however, it has been advocated that this ware should be called "Hizen porcelain," attaching importance to the area of its production, the Hizen region which includes Arita. Archaeological excavations of kiln sites and sites of the commercial area in which the ceramics were marketed and consumed are shedding more light on how it was produced and distributed.

The Birth of Overglaze Enamel Decoration

At the end of the Kanei era and beginning of the Shoho era (1640s), production of porcelain decorated with overglaze enamels became possible at the Arita kilns. While many details remain unclear about the origin of overglaze enamel decoration, records of the SAKAIDA Kakiemon family indicate that the techniques were learned from the Chinese craftsmen living in Japan. At the same time, the influence of the enamel-decorated ware from Jingdezhen private kilns and the Swatow ware from Zhangzhou kilns which was being imported to Japan in large quantities at the time should not be ignored. The appearance of overglaze decoration in Arita led to the development of the Ko-Kutani, Kakiemon. Ko-Imari, and Nabeshima styles, led to the flourishing age of elaborate and colorful porcelain. Excavations began from the 1970s of old kiln sites and sites of the commercial area in which the ceramics were marketed and consumed have supported the theory that Ko-Kutani style ware was in fact made in Arita, and researchers are in the process of attempting to incorporate the Ko-Kutani style ware chronologically into the ceramic history of Arita.

(1)Ko-Kutani Style

This ware is called Ko-Kutani because it was once thought to have been fired at the Kutani kiln (present-day Ishikawa Prefecture) of the Daishoji clan. Recent archaeological excavations, however, have discovered pieces of pots to be decorated in Ko-Kutani style at the Yanbeta kiln site (Arita), and shards of decorated Ko-Kutani ware from the site of a factory specializing in overglaze decoration in Akaemachi (Arita). These excavated pieces have been determined to have been made between 1640 and 1650. Therefore, the prevailing theory at present is that Ko-Kutani style ware was early decorated porcelain produced in Arita, Hizen. The porcelain body at this point was not a very refined one, but the bold forms and innovative decorations offset the imperfection. It was popular at the time to use large plates with overglaze decoration at parties, and a large number of superb plates were produced. The designs on these wares were quick to incorporate popular motifs of the time, such as kosode (type of kimono) designs published in Ohiinagata (samples of motifs) (1667) or the motifs of Chinese-style paintings depicted in Hasshu Gafu (picture book on eight types of motifs). In some cases geometric patterns such as lozenge or tortoise shell designs are used skillfully that render innovative and even modern effects. Another important feature of Ko-Kutani ware is that no two examples have the same design. The value of these pieces as limited edition ware must surely have satisfied the demand of the wealthy class. In recent years, examples of Ko-Kutani ware have been unearthed in sites in Southeast Asia, indicating the need for a reevaluation of its distribution, though it was produced mainly for the domestic market. Excavations of kiln sites in Kutani, Ishikawa Prefecture, have revealed that porcelain was already being produced in Kutani in 1655. Further research is needed regarding the relationship between Kutani and Ko-Kutani ware.

(2)Kakiemon Style

Kakiemon style ware is named after SAKAIDA Kakiemon I (?-1666) who contributed to the development of decorated porcelain in Japan. The term, though, is also used to generally describe high-quality porcelain decorated with overglaze enamels and made in Arita for export. With the development of the technique of overglaze enamel decoration, the quality of porcelain clay bodies also improved, which resulted in the creation of a milky white porcelain clay body known as nigoshi-de. Recent archaeological excavations tell us that this development occurred in the 1670s in the Enpo era (1673-80). While making effective use of the white nigoshi-de body, bright red designs of flowers and animals were painted with a delicate, elegant touch. This led to the perfection of the so-called Kakiemon style. The forms were created mainly using jigger wheels, which made it possible to produce thin pieces without warping, for a sharp, delicate effect. From excavations in Akae-cho ruins, it is clear that the development of Kakiemon porcelain was based on Ko-Kutani ware. However, the Kakiemon style developed within the framework of Chinese Qing dynasty wucai ware and overglaze decorated Jingdezhen ware of the Kangxi era (1662-1722). At first Kakiemon style ware was in demand as a substitute for such Chinese porcelain, and its stylistic feature is quite different from Ko-Kutani, which was produced mainly for the domestic market. From the second half of the 17th century, molded figurines were also produced. Molds for such pieces have been excavated from the Akae-cho ruins.

Kakiemon ware was exported to Europe by the Dutch V.O.C. (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie). Around 1710 the German Meissen factory was the first in Europe to successfully produce porcelain, and imitations of Kakiemon ware were produced there, along with other porcelain factories such as Sevres in France and Chelsea in England.

(3)Ko-Imari Style

Among the Edo-period porcelain produced in the Hizen region, there is ware known as early Imari, which is blue-and-white ware produced until the 1640s. On the other hand, porcelain decorated with overglaze enamels and influenced by wucai and kinrande of China's Jingdezhen began to be produced during the 1690s. This type of ware is known as Ko-Imari style.

In 1659, as exports from Jingdezhen were halted, Arita kilns received large orders of ware for export to Southeast Asia and Europe. Incorporating the wucai ware of the late Ming dynasty as well as the baroque taste which was popular in Europe at the time, Arita kilns developed the elaborately decorated ware known as somenishiki-de, which became the major export item. In the Genroku era (1688-1704), imitating the kinrande ware from Jingdezhen ware of the Jiajing (1522-66) and Wanli (1573-1619) periods, gold decoration was applied to somenishiki-de ware, creating its unique kinrande style. This was to replace Kakiemon style ware in responding to domestic demand, and as the flower of export porcelain, also satisfied demand in Europe.

(4)Nabeshima Style

As porcelain production was established and developed, its commercial value increased. The ruling Nabeshima clan whose fief included Arita strengthened its control over porcelain production, and in 1647 the clan assigned a magistrate to Sarayama. The clan established a directly operated kiln, a kind of official kiln, at Iwayakawachi in Arita in the Kanei era (1624-44) to produce especially high grade porcelain for use by the clan itself, as well as for contributions to the Shogun and gifts to various daimyo or lords. It was at this kiln that the Nabeshima style was originated. In the Kanbun era (1661-73) the clan kiln was moved to Nangawara in Arita, and moved again in 1675 to Okawachi Mountain in Imari. Under strict standardization and quality control, along with complete division of labor patterned after Jingdezhen, highly skilled craftsmen produced superb wares of stylized beauty. The kiln entered its golden age in the Genroku era (1688-1704) at Okawachi. Representative of the Nabeshima style is called iro-Nabeshima or porcelain with overglaze polychrome enamel, which has sophisticated Japanese-style designs executed by highly accomplished artisans, and has a superior character appropriate to the ware of an official kiln. Typical form of Nabeshima ware is a deep dish with a tall foot known as mokuhai-gata (a wooden wine-cup shape). Sizes are rigidly standardized into one shaku, seven sun, five sun, or three sun (one sun =3.03 cm/ten sun = one shaku).

The Spread of Porcelain

From 1640 to 1650, the production system in Arita underwent a large-scale transformation from traditional system based on Korean techniques to a Chinese-style system. It has been pointed out that one of the reasons for this was the outflow of pottery technology from southern China due to the internal confusion resulting from the change of dynasty from the Ming to the Qing. In 1661, the prohibition on overseas contacts for the Chinese caused trade in Jingdezhen porcelain to come to a complete halt, and as a replacement Arita became the focus of attention which could meet the demand of both domestic and overseas. The Arita kilns introduced the latest Chinese porcelain production technology, and from 1659 the Dutch V.O.C. placed orders for large amounts of porcelain with Arita factories. As a result, Arita ware was able to raise the standard of its ware to a level competitive with Jingdezhen. This marked the beginning of the age of vast exports of Hizen porcelain. From the 1650-1660s, imitations of Chinese fuyode (kraak ware) type large dishes blue-and-white large dishes were produced for export in great quantities. The porcelain decorated with overglaze enamels which developed as a result of the technological innovations also gained popularity as export ware, especially in Europe.

In 1684, the prohibition on overseas contacts for the Chinese was rescinded, and export of Jingdezhen ware was resumed. This caused demand for Hizen porcelain to decrease dramatically, and production shifted to blue-and-white tableware targeting the domestic market. Prices became cheaper and the ware simpler and more standardized, with the result that the use of porcelain spread to the common people. The production of porcelain began in Arita in the 1610s, but even in the 17th century, the only kilns known to have produced porcelain outside of Arita are Kutani (Ishikawa prefecture) and Himetani (Hiroshima prefecture). This is because the Nabeshima clan, aware of the commercial value of porcelain, strictly controlled the porcelain kilns, guarding against the spread of the technology to other clans. The outflow of technology could not be halted completely, however, and by the 18th century porcelain production had begun in other areas of Kyushu. In the Tenmei era (1781-88) kilns in Kyoto began to fire porcelain. In the second half of the 18th century, porcelain kilns were established around the country, such as Tobe ware (Ehime Prefecture), Sue ware, (Fukuoka Prefecture), Komine ware (Miyazaki Prefecture), and Ito ware (Shimane Prefecture). In the Bunka era (1804~l8), blue-and-white porcelain was successfully fired in Seto, after which production expanded dramatically. Eventually, the porcelain production in Seto overtook that of its Japanese birthplace, Arita, and in eastern Japan the term Seto-mono (wares from Seto) came to mean pottery as a whole.

LACQUER WARE DECORATION

Urushi-nuri

Literally "lacquer coating." Lacquer ware is also called shikki (lacquer ware) or nurimono (coated things). Japanese lacquer is a highly toxic nonresinous sap from the Rhus verniciflua tree (the same genus of poison ivy and poison oak) which hardens rather than dries. The poisonous aspect of the medium generally limits its use to special artisans. Lacquer construction has three stages : kiji, or forming the base, body, or core of wood or sometimes basketry, leather and paper ; application of lacquer coatings to seal and protect the object; and decoration of the surface. Application of urushi differs regionally, but there are three basic types of lacquer coats: undercoats shitaji, middle coats naka-nuri, and final coats uwa-nuri. Some styles omit the nakanuri, while the final coat always uses the most highly refined lacquer because this is the surface which is decorated. In gold decoration makie, the final coat is a high-gloss, transparent lacquer rouiro. In Japan red-and-black-lacquered earhenware pots date from ca. 4500 BC. After 1599 systems for culivating lacquer trees and improving lacquering techniques were developed. In the 18c, colored lacquers and makie became widespread. There are several basic lacquer techniques, but decorative techniques are numerous. Ikkanbari, also called harinuki, is a paper-based lacquer used for teawares. Layers of lacquer-glued paper are applied to the interior of a mold and coated with lacquer when removed from the mold. Hirai Ikkan (1578-1657), a naturalized Chinese reportedly invented the technique in the Kan'ei era (1624-44) when he became lacquer master to Sen Soutan (1578-1658). Iro-urushi is a multi-colored lacquer in which ganryou (pigments) are mixed into suki-urushi (clear lacquer). Traditionally only five natural pigments (red, black, yellow, green and brown) were used, but since the Meiji period white and neutral tints were made chemically. Shunkei-nuri is a technique of applying transparent urushi over wood grain so the natural wood pattern shows through. Popular in the 17c, it was reportedly invented by a 14c lacquermaster named Shunkei. A variety of lacquer types evolved in regional production centers. Negoro-nuri was made at Negoroji in Wakayama prefecture. The red surface wears to reveal the underlying black; this effect was later deliberately imitated. Tsugaru-nuri is made in Tsugaru, Aomori prefecture. Muliple layers of colored lacquer (usually green, red, yellow and brown) produce a spotted-marbled effect. The technique reportedly was used first in 1685 by Ikeda Gentarou, the son of lacquer master Ikeda Genbee. Aizu-nuri has been made in the Aizu area of Fukushima prefecture from the late 16c, with peak output in 1878. There are two methods of priming. In the shibushitaji process, lamp black is mixed with persimmon tannin and applied as a primer then burnished when dry ; or persimmon tannin is applied alone, and burnished, before lacquer is applied. In the sabishitaji technique a clay-like primer is applied and burnished when hard. A lacquer undercoat follows the sabi and, after burnishing, intermediate and final coats are applied. The Aizu region also developed chinkin, incising a design into the lacquer surface, then applying a thin layer of lacquer and applying gold dust or gold foil to the tacky lacquer. Jouhana-nuri, also called jouhana makie (jigoemon-nuri), was developed in Jouhana in Toyama prefecture by Hata Jigoemon and Hata Tokuzaemon in the early 17c. It uses techniques of mitsuda-e and keifun-makie and has a white color. In ‚—akasa-nuri, made since ca. 1660 at Wakasa in Fukui prefecture, layers of different colored lacquers are applied to a ground roughened by the addition of pieces of egg shell or rice chaff. Thin gold or silver foil is pressed into the indentations and a coating of transparent lacquer is applied then polished to make a smooth surface. Kuroe-nuri, also called kainan shikki , is made in Kuroe, Kainan city, Wakayama prefecture. In 1826, professional lacquer craftmen were invited to Osaka; in the Ansei era (1854-60) makie was introduced; in 1879 the chinkinbori (lacquer ware inlaid with gold) technique was introduced by Kyoto craftsmen.

Urushi-e

1  Painting done with colored lacquer iro-urushi, made by mixing pigments in a base of transparent lacquer suki-urusi. Until the Edo period, five colors - red, black, yellow, green, and light brown - were available through the use of natural pigments. White lacquer was not produced until the mid 19c. One extant example of urushi-e dates back to the early Joumon period: a fragment of earthenware decorated with a simple pattern in red lacquer was found in the Torihama shellmound kaizuka, in Fukui prefecture. The decoration on the Tamamushi miniature shrine, Tamamushi no zushi (mid-7c) in Houryuuji , Nara, is thought to be done by mixed techniques of urushi-e and mitsuda-e . From the Nara period, painting in red lacquer against a black background was favored by aristocrats for lacquered wood utensils and furniture. Around the Momoyama period (16c) daily and ceremonial lacquerware decorated with colorful urushi-e or mitsuda-e became very popular. Complicated designs of flowers, birds, animals, and scenes from old stories were depicted and often made more decorative by using gold powders sunago and gold leafkimpaku. Local traditions of painted lacquerware continue in many areas today. 2  A type of early hand-colored ukiyo-e‚ woodblock print. Animal collagen glue nikawa was added to black ink sumi to give a lustrous appearance, which was reminiscent of black lacquer. It was used primarily for hairstyles and costume details such as obi. In part to balance the strong black areas, other colors were made brighter. Bronze or brass powder as well as fine mica flakes ummo were sometimes sprinkled onto these prints. Urushi-e was used primarily in the Kyouhou era (1716-36), and in the Kampou era (1741-44), but can be seen as late as 1764 on large works. The technique appears on the prints of artists such as Okumura Masanobu (1686-1764), Nishimura Shigenaga (1697?-1756) and the Torii school Toriiha masters Torii Kiyonobu (1664-1729) and Kiyomasu (fl.c.1696-1716).

Ukiyo-e

Lit. pictures of the floating world. Paintings and woodblock prints of genre themes developed from late 17c to late 19c (mid-Edo to early Meiji periods), supported by the people in the middle class of society shomin, or ("common people") mainly in the city of Edo. Because of this locality, ukiyo-e was also called edo-e or azuma-e, (lit. eastern pictures), during the Edo period. In the broader sense of the term, however, ukiyo-e includes various local paintings appreciated by common people in the Edo period all over Japan, such as ootsu-e (comical, folk painting produced in Ootsu, Shiga prefecture), nagasaki hanga (woodblock prints depicting foreign people and objects seen in Nagasaki, Nagasaki prefecture), and kamigata-e (woodblock prints) produced in the Kyoto-Osaka area kamigata, mostly portrayals of the kabuki (actors popular there). The term ukiyo-e, which is first found in literature during the first half of the 1680's, derives from the fact that they depict the activities of a transient ("floating"), but therefore enjoyable world. Pictures of beautiful women bijinga and young boys, particularly the courtesans of the pleasure quarters yuujo, scenes from kabuki plays shibai-e and portraits of popular actors yakusha-e, and pornographic pictures shunga are the three major subjects of ukiyo-e. Literary themes taken from poems and stories from Japan and China were also popular, pictures of heroic warriors musha-e being particularly favoured throughout the period. Often the classic themes were parodied or represented in mundane, contemporary circumstances. Ukiyo-e were mass-produced in order to fulfill a great demand among middle-class people, who were their major appreciators. Therefore, the principal form of ukiyo-e were woodblock prints, which were planned by the publisher hanmoto and produced in collaboration with the painter/designer eshi, carver horishi and printer surishi. Even hand-paintings nikuhitsuga were produced in large quantities in workshops under the direction of a master artist who designed the product, supervised its coloring by his pupils and signed them . Because of the vagaries of this studio system several versions of the same painting with slight differences often exist in ukiyo-e. Art historically, ukiyo-e is placed at the end of the development of kinseishoki fuuzokuga (genre painting of the Early Modern period). Although early ukiyo-e artists signed themselves as painters of yamato-e suggesting that ukiyo-e succeeded the tradition of native Japanese paintings, the influence of various pictorial styles of the period, including that of the Kanouha, Tosaha, youfuuga (western style painting) and shaseiga (realistic painting), can be found in ukiyo-e . The history of ukiyo-e can be devided into three periods. Period 1) Meireki to Houreki eras (1655-1764) Ukiyo-e prints derived from book illustrations. Book publishing had been popular in the kamigata (Kyoto-Osaka) area already in the early 17c, but after the disastrous fire of 1657, books began to be published in Edo. The proportion of illustrations in a book became bigger and bigger, and at last the texts became only one fifth of a whole page. The next step was for illustrations to become independent of the text and appreciated for themselves. Like Hishikawa Moronobu's (?-1694) "Scenes of Yoshiwara" Yoshiwara no tai, they typically consisted of a set kumimono of twelve prints, which mostly depicted scenes from popular stories or pornography. Ukiyo-e is generally thought to have originated with Moronobu, who declared in the preface of the book he illustrated, "Monthly Amusements" Tsukinami no Asobi (1683), that he invented "ukiyo-e" and became a leading painter. Around 1700, single-sheet woodblock prints ichimai-e began to be sold alone and became the dominant form in Edo. To begin with the prints were all in black sumi, sumizuri-e , with occasional hand colouring fudezaishiki (lit. brush coloring) added separately. Very strong, orange-red tan, or "lead-red" and in some cases green were boldly applied to the drawings with strong, wavy lines in tan-e . Moronobu's paintings of beauties and/or of the pleasure quarters were succeeded by the work of artists of the Kaigetsudou school Kaigetsudouha which lasted for only about a generation. At the same time the artists of the Torii school Toriiha, which is still in existance today took in a monopoly in kabuki theatrical posters and actor prints. Torii Kiyonobu (1664-1729) and Kiyomasu (act. early 18c) invented a unique manner with strong stylisation in tan-e for depicting kabuki actors, and established the Torii school. In the first half of 18c, beni-e became prominent, lit. vermillion painting, in which lighter, rose-red paint/ink made of safflowers beni and light green kusajiru (lit. grass sap,) were more meticulously applied on more sophisticated drawings with thinner lines. In order to give an accent to prints that were otherwise too simple, hair and obi belts, etc. were often highlighted with dark, glossy black, made by adding nikawa glue to sumi, in urushi-e ("lacquer painting" because of the gloss). In 1774, with the invention of kentou, color impressions irohan began to be added to the keyblock impression omohan in sumi. Because rose-red and grass-green were the primary colors, they were called benizuri-e. Okumura Masanobu (1686-1764), who produced excellent beni prints during this period, was an innovative artist with many new ideas, such as a triptych with a continuous composition soroimono, in long vertical format to be hung a pillar hashira-e, as well as uki-e, lit. floating pictures, a print characterised by experimental application with an exaggerrated use of western perspective. Period 2) Meiwa to Kansei ­ eras (1764-1801) The latter half of 18c is considered to be the classical period of ukiyo-e in terms of artistic quality. The technique of ukiyo-e prints reached its peak when multi-colored woodblock prints nishiki-e (lit. brocade pictures) were produced for extravagant calendars (e-goyomi, lit. painting calendar,) by Suzuki Harunobu (1725-70) in 1765. Harunobu's lovely, doll-like figures in classical and/or poetic settings (often in mitate-e) were replaced by slender ladies in contemporary settings as painted by Torii Kiyonaga (1752-1815) in the 1780's. Kiyonaga's beauties are often in groups, and painted on a set of two or three sheets of paper with a continuous composition. Kitagawa Utamaro (1754-1806) was the most popular painter of beauties in the 1790's. He depicted not only courtesans but also ordinary women, often as a bust ookubi-e, and successfully depicted the inner emotions of the ladies depicted by their subtle expressions and gestures. Prints of kabuki actors were still produced by Torii school artists, and their formal style became a standard. In 1770's, Katsukawa Shunshou (1726-92) created more realistic portraits nigao-e (lit. likeness painting) of actors, which have been popular ever since. In 1794, Utagawa Toyokuni (1769-1825) published a series of "full-length portraits of actors" Yakusha butai no sugata-e . His eclectic style depicting the dramatic postures of actors became extremely successful and eventually led to the establishment of the Utagawaha, the dominant ukiyo-e school in 19c. On the other hand, Toushuusai Sharaku (act. 1794) published a series of close-up portraits ookubi-e of actors in May 1794. His extremely realistic works seemed sensational at that time, but his style may have been too radical for ordinary people, and ten months later his name suddenly disappeared from the records. Period 3) Kyouwa to Keiou eras (1801-68) After 1800, ukiyo-e prints were produed in much larger quantities with wider variations of themes, such as landscapes, birds and flowers, historical stories and warriors, satiric and/or comical cartoons, in addition to the beauties, actors, and pornography. Pictures designed for toys omocha-e, such as playing cards, kites, etc, are also generally included. The artists of the Utagawa school were the most prosperous, but their pictures of the beauties and actors became stylized and manneristic. Two of the most well-known masters of landscape prints in this period are Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849) and Utagawa Hiroshige (also known as Andou Hiroshige, 1797-1858). Hokusai's well-structured landscapes, represented by the "Thirty-six Views of Mt.Fuji" Fugaku Sanjuurokkei (1831-33), contrast with Hiroshige's intimate views as found in the "Fifty-three Stations on the Toukaidou" Toukaidou Gojuusantsugi (1833). Another artist worth noting is Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1797-1861), who became particularly popular in warrior prints, caricatures, and contemporary townscapes. The introduction of photography and lithography sekihanga put an end to the innovative developement of ukiyo-e, and Kobayashi Kiyochika (1847-1915) is often thought to be the last true ukiyo-e painter. As interest in ukiyo-e declined in Japan after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, many works were exported while others were simply used as wrapping paper. The art of ukiyo-e woodblock prints underwent great re-evaluation in Europe and America in late 19c to early 20c, and greatly influenced the artistic movements of Impressionism and Art Nouveau.

Makie

Lit. "sprinkled picture." A technique which originated in the Heian period for lacquer ware decoration in which designs are made by scattering adhesive metal or color powder in soft lacquer or directly on wood. Commonly used powders are gold, silver, aokin (an alloy of gold and silver), tin, shakudou (an alloy of copper and gold), gunmetal, an alloy of three parts copper to one of silver, brass, lead, aluminum, platinum, pewter, and kanshitsufun (dry-lacquer powder). Paint powders include yasurifun (coarse flakes produced by filing), hiramefun (flattened coarse flakes), nashijifun (fine flakes used for pearskin lacquer decoration), marufun (grain-shaped flakes) and keshifun (frosted gold leaf). Two kinds of soft brushes are used for line drawing and applying the first coat: funzutsu (a bamboo tube with a silk or gauze net for laying powder) and tsumeban (made of water-buffalo horn or tortoise shell for lacquer paint). Also used are the jouban (box table), wide hake brush and hair stick. Techniques are divided into three types. In the togidashi makie (burnished makie) technique popular in the Heian period, after the low relief sprinkled design and ground harden, they are covered in transparent or black lacquer, then polished down with charcoal until the design is flush with the new ground. Togidashi largely replaced the makkinru technique in which coarse gold filings were sprinkled over the wet design surface, relacquered, and polished until the design was revealed. Hiramakie (flat makie), introduced in the Kamakura period, features sprinkled powders applied directly on the smooth lacquered surface in very low relief so only the thickness of the final protective lacquer coating is raised above the surface. In takamakie (raised makie), developed in the Muromachi period, metallic powders are applied to soft surface designs built up through a mixture of lacquer and charcoal or clay dust. They are affixed by a protective lacquer coat and polished. Cut metal shapes kirikane and metal nacre, kanagai techniques are often used in conjunction. Shishiai makie or shishiai togidashi makie a combination of the takamakie and togidashimakie techniques, was used frequently in landscapes where such elements as rocks, clouds, or mountains are done in a raised design that slopes gently into a flattened design. Ikakeji a precursor to the fundami technique, is the process through which a ground is made by the heavy sprinkling of gold or silver powder in one coat. Makie application techniques include tsukegaki (drawing with narrow lacquer lines and oversprinkling with gold and silver filings), kakiwari (design motifs are emphasised with liqued lacquer and sprinkled gold and silver, while boarders are left plain), and abisemaki (entire flower petals or leaves are scattered with gold fillings, and then outlines and veins are presented in higher or lower relief). Sprinkling techniques include jimaki (metal filings or pigment are deposited on the background of design motifs), chirimaki (coarse filings of gold or silver are sprinkled over the lacquered surface of an object), heijin (where additional lacquer is applied over chirimaki decoration and then polished away with abrasives after it dries), and ikakeji (a type of jimaki where gold and silver powder is sprinkled densely over the lacquered ground), hirameji (filed and pressed coarse metal flakes are sprinkled over a half-dry lacquer surface, recoated, and finally polished to expose metal flakes), and nashiji. Such techniques as raden (lacquerware with mother-of-pearl inlay), hyoumon (imbedding of shapes cut out from gold, silver or tin sheets) may be used. Makie objects were first made as household goods for court nobles. Soon military leaders became patrons and makie styles evolved to serve new tastes. Nashiji (pear-skin ground), is the name given to two widely-used styles invented in the Kamakura period. In one, large irregular shaped gold flakes are scattered at differing angles in many layers in wet nashiji urushi a highly translucent lacquer that has been tinted orange; a further coating is applied and polishing exposes the flakes to produce an uneven surface texture. It is often used to give a uniformly decorative surface to large but less important areas, such as the insides of drawers or the bottoms of boxes. In the other nashiji technique, a fine metallic powder is sprinkled onto a lacquered surface; when dry, a coat of transparent lacquer is applied and lightly polished. Under the shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa (ruled 1449-74), lacquers in the so-called Higashiyama style flourished. Kouami Douchou (1410-78), the first lacquer master linked to specific works, used designs by such contemporary painters as Tosa Mitsunobu (1434-1525), Nouami (1397-1471), and Souami (d. 1525). Kouami and another makie master, Igarashi Shinsai (act mid-15c), started the two earliest schools of lacquer under direct shogunal patronage. The Kouami school Kouamiha continued in a direct line of descent to make lacquer ware for the shogunate until the 19c, typically with designs inspired by master painters of the Kanou school Kanouha. A rival was the Igarashi school Igarashiha founded by Igarashi Shinsai under Ashikaga Yoshimasa and continuing through the 17c. Ryuukyuu shikki made in Okinawa and the Amami Islands, was made from about 1500. Influenced by Chinese lacquer styles, the tsuikin technique derived from ryuukyuu shikki. Tsuikin consisted of making a dough from lacquer solution and colored pigments, rolling this out, punching or cutting this into engraved patterns, and applying to the surface of a lacquered object. In the Momoyama period, a new, ultra-refined style of hiramakie was called koudaiji makie. Associated with the temple Koudaiji Kyoto, it used a black lacquer base decorated in the hiramakie style with e-nashiji (sprinkling coarse flakes of gold over the whole surface or the background space on lacquerware), and harigaki (engraving in lacquer with a needle). In the early Edo period, a special lacquer ware which mixed mother-of-pearl inlay with hiramakie was called nanban makie or nanban shitsugei. Displaying mostly Portuguese or Dutch motifs it is found most often on trunks made for the European export market. In the Edo period, Honnami Kouetsu (1558-1637) and Ogata Kourin (1658-1716) developed their own designs and techniques. At the end of the Edo period, techniques became more complicated, but the quality of materials declined and expression became perfunctory.

Wajima Chinkin

Also called chinkinbori a technique developed in Aizunuri that involves cutting a design into a lacquered surface, applying a thin layer of lacquer into the incised lines, then applying gold foil, gold dust, or colored dust over the soft lacquer to form a contrast with the ground. When the lacquer dries, the gold is cemented into the incised design. Introduced from China to Japan in the Muromachi period; Wajima lacquerware, wajima chinkin was further developed in the later Edo period.

Kirikane

Lit. cut-gold. 1Metal foil, haku generally gold or silver, cut into long, thin strips, or, triangular, square, and lozenge shapes systematically arranged to form lines or a decorative pattern on sculptures and paintings (see kirihaku). Exquisite use of kirikane is often found in the decoration of the robes of Buddhist images. The technique was passed down from Tang China and reached Japan around 7c (Hakuhou period). Kirikane is found on the late 7c "Four Guardian Kings" Shitennou in the Golden Hall, Kondou of Houryuuji and on the 8c "Four Guardian Kings" at Toudaiji . The kirikane technique was popular in the late Heian period (9-12c) for both sculpture and painting. An outstanding example from this period is the 12c painting of Bodhisattava Kokuuzou in the Tokyo National Museum. In the early 13c (Kamakura period) examples of the designs became more delicate and complicated, but often conventional and stylized. Since the mid-13c gold outlines tended to be drawn in gold paint (kindei and thereafter the use of kirikane declined. 2@A decorative technique used on makie (gold and silver applied to lacquer). A thin sheet of metal, generally gold or silver, is cut into squares, rectangles and triangles and affixed with lacquer forming clouds, mist, ground, trees and rocks. This technique was first developed in the Kamakura period and soon became highly prized for its ornate quality.

Kirihaku

Lit. cut-foil. A method of ornamentation using gold and/or silver leaf cut haku into different shaped pieces and applied to various surfaces with rice paste or lacquer. The term also applies to cut foil itself. The kirikane technique was developed in the 10c-11c (mid Heian period) and was most commonly used to decorate writing papers, sutras, illustrated handscrolls, e-maki and screens. Different names are given to the various sizes and shapes of kirihaku in accordance with their resemblance to natural objects: large pieces are called ishi or "stones"; fine, long, narrow pieces noge for their resemblance to the tips or 'beards' of pampas grass; smaller square pieces arare "hailstones", or sansho "black pepper"; and the finest ones sunago for their similarity to grains of sand. Those lacking a specific form are called momihaku because they appear rubbed rather than cut. Kirihaku is similar to kirikane but kirihaku is sprinkled over a surface, not deliberately pasted, thus the resultant pattern is irregular and spontaneous.

Haku

Lit. foil or leaf. Gold, silver, copper, tin or brass pounded into a thin flat sheet and used for the decoration of art works and craft objects. Gold kinpaku and silver ginpaku were most frequently used. A thin block of metal is wrapped in leather or washi (Japanese paper) and pounded with a wooden or bamboo mallet until it is about 1/10,000 of 1mm in thickness (the Heian/Kamakura examples are thicker). The sheets are then cut into approximately 10cm-squares. Most metal foils are made in Kyoto and Kanazawa. The technique of affixing gold foil to the surface of an object with lacquer or glue nikawa is called kinpakuoshi. The earliest known example of haku in Japan is found on the wall painting of Takamatsuzuka tomb (late 7c-early 8c). During the Nara and Heian periods (7-12c), gold and silver foil were frequently used as decoration on Buddhist paintings and sculptures, as well as on writing paper. In a technique called shippaku gold/silver foil was pressed on top of lacquer applied to wood or to dry lacquer kanshitsu sculpture. Foil cut into small pieces was used to make exquisite designs on the garments of Buddhist deities kirikane and also sprinkled over the surface of writing papers for decoration kirihaku. Sometimes foil was applied to the back of a painting to produce a soft, lusterous sheen on the metal ornaments held by Buddhist deities urahaku. From the Muromachi period, gold foil, which was favoured by the shoguns, was amply used for extravagant architectural decoration, such as Ashikaga Yoshimitsu's (1358-1408) Golden Pavilion, Rokuonji Kinkaku and Toyotomi Hideyoshi's (1536?-98) Golden Teahouse, Kin no chashitsu. Gold foil also was used extensively for interior decoration, and the gold background kinji of paintings on screens and sliding doors kinpeki shouhekiga. Gold/silver foil is also frequently used to decorate craft objects. It is affixed to lacquerware haku-e and pressed onto textiles. Generally gold and silver foil is applied inkin with glue or lacquer, however, during the Momoyama period (16-17c), a variation of this technique using rice paste as a bonding agent became popular (surihaku with embroidery), it is called nuihaku.

Sunago

A type of foil (kirihaku), usually gold or silver, cut so finely that the pieces are as minute as grains of sand (suna). It is then sprinkled from a bamboo cylinder with small holes at the bottom over a thin layer of glue (nikawa) or lacquer which has been brushed across the areas to be decorated. Since the late Heian period (12c), paintings, lacquerware and sutra or writing papers have been decorated with sunago, which produces a soft but rich effect. The famous "Heike noukyou" sutra is a fine example of this technique and other types of cut-foil application. In paintings sunago is used in place of pigments to represent ground or mist as well as to suggest empty space.

Yamato-e

A widely used description term which has carried various nuances in different periods, but generally applied to paintings whose subject matter, format and/or style are considered "Japanese," as opposed to something "foreign," or "Chinese." The term is derived from an ancient name for the Nara area where the earliest Japanese emperors (by the 6c) established the Yamato ‘å˜a court. The earliest documented use of the term yamato-e dates from the late 10c, but it is likely that by the late 9c Heian aristocrats had come to decorate their residences with folding screen byoubu and panel shouji paintings of landscapes with geographic features, seasonal references, or other genre elements that were recognizably Japanese. These secular types of subject matter including meisho-e and tsukinami-e (also shiki-e) were all called yamato-e to distinguish them from paintings with Chinese landscape or genre subject matter which were called kara-e. No large-scale Heian secular painting survives; however, fragmentary evidence of existing records and religious paintings suggest that yamato-e was painted in the same prevailing style as kara-e. Kara-e style was based on the Chinese Six Dynasties or Early Tang expression and techniques, and generally employed bright-colored, opaque pigments with figures clearly outlined and detailed in black sumi ink. In the Heian period small size paintings in handscroll or booklet format with Japanese subject matter were usually termed story illustrations monogatari-e or poetry paintings uta-e not yamato-e. Thus, in its earliest use, yamato-e seems to have referred to subject matter and/or format. By the 12c, the application of yamato-e broadened with the introduction of ink painting suibokuga by Zen ‘T monks who had come from or studied in Yuan or Ming China. The new ink painting was clearly Chinese and was therefore given the name kara-e (or later kanga). With this change in the definition of kara-e came a change in the definition of yamato-e. During the middle ages yamato-e came to mean any painting in the tradition of the brightly colored style favored by the Heian court in any format (handscrolls included) regardless of subject matter. Ink-painting flourished because of its connection with the Zen establishment, particularly among the warrior ruling classes. The new conservative style of yamato-e was favored by the court and aristocracy as a means of preserving the remnants of their power and cultural prestige. The aristocracy perpetuated the old rituals by both practising and patronizing the courtly arts of Japanese-style poetry and Japanese-style calligraphy, both of which are inextricably linked with yamato-e. The painters at the official atelier edokoro were therefore given great incentive to continue working in the yamato-e style. Their subjects came from the waka (Japanese poetry) anthologies, or the great tales of courtly romance and history in such works as GENJI MONOGATARI (The Tale of Genji), or HEIKE MONOGATARI (The Tale of The Heike), which often recalled the golden past of the court. Often these themes were imbued with a Buddhist awareness of the transcience of privilage, status and indeed of all life, themes which had a particular irony, considering the troubled times that existed outside the court during the late Kamakura and Muromachi periods. After the 15c, when successive generations of the Tosa familyTosaha assumed headship azukari of the edokoro, yamato-e came to refer to paintings whose style was increasingly miniaturist and gilded. By the 16c, other distinct painting schools began to flourish, particularly the Kanou school Kanouha and yamato-e therefore became more deeply identified with the Tosa and related Sumiyoshi family Sumiyoshiha. Yamato-e also influenced the Rinpa and ukiyo-e styles. In the late Edo period (late 18c/early 19c) artists following Tanaka Totsugen (1767-1823), such as Ukida Ikkei (1795-1859), and Okada Tamechika (1823-64), studied yamato-e from earlier periods (especially the Tosa tradition) and attempted to revive its style and themes. Many affiliated with the Yamato-e Revivalist School (Fukko yamato-eha) took dangerous political risks supporting a monarchist restoration in opposition to the failing Tokugawa government. Yamato-e continued to influence painters in the Meiji period (late 19c) particularly those whose particular interest was historic themes rekishigaha for one. Even in the 20c, yamato-e influenced the broad range of painting known as nihonga which employs the traditional yamato-e pigment and tools, as well as some of its style and themes.

Kachouga

Lit. bird-and-flower painting. Paintings of birds and flowers, flowers only kakiga, insects, plants souchuuga, or domestic animals reimouga . The bird-and-flower theme was a major one in yamato-e painting, although only those on lacquerware and metalwork survive from before the Kamakura period. The oldest extant paintings which treat bird-and-flower as an independent theme are the Muromachi period monochrome ink paintings done by Zen ‘T monks, influenced by paintings of the Song and Yuan dynasties sougenga. Influenced by Chinese Academic painting, professional artists in the 15c. began painting polychrome depictions of a bird-and-flower on screens. In many cases birds and flowers placed in a landscape setting progress seasonally across the screens from right to left or vice versa shiki kachou-zu. Kanou School, Kanouha artists are credited with creating a new style by synthesizing the ink-painting brushwork of Chinese painting with the flat, bright colors and abundant use of gold in traditional yamato-e painting. In the Momoyama period, bird-and-flower motifs were set against a brilliant gold background using gold leaf and painted on large-scale screen and walls in the interiors of residential castles. Two distinct styles emerged in the Edo period: the decorative rendering of flowers and grasses by Rinpa artists; and the naturalistic style by the artists of the Maruyama Shijouha, who synthesized the decorative yamato-e tradition with a fresh view of nature. Later, woodblock print, ukiyo-e artists like Andou Hiroshige (1797-1858) also employed bird-and flower designs.

Kanouha school

A hereditary school of professional artists, patronized by military governments from the late Muromachi (15c) to the early Meiji periods (19c). The Kanou school produced a large number of talented and distinguished painters, who worked in a wide variety of formats and styles on themes such as Buddhist subjects, Chinese figures, bird-and-flower paintings, animals, landscapes, genre paintings fuuzokuga nanban screens (nanban byoubu) and even maps of Japan and the world. The founder of the school, Kanou Masanobu (1434-1530), was a painter of samurai origin and succeeded Oguri Soutan (1413-81) as an official painter goyou-eshi to the Muromachi shogunate. He worked on both ink-painting suibokuga a new trend started by the 14c Zen ‘T priest-painters, and colorful yamato-e of Japanese origin. In ink-painting, in particular, he invented an original style employing light colors and simple compositions, which became very popular among the military government at that time. Kanou Motonobu (1476-1559), Masanobu's son, further strengthened the school by expanding his social and political connections to the upper strata of Muromachi society. Motonobu is credited with having established the orthodox Kanou style by combining yamato-e themes and techniques with ink-painting. This achievement is called by modern scholars the "synthesis of Japanese and Chinese" wakan yuugou. Motonobu also instituted a studio system that ensured the continued training of generations of painters. His son, Shouei (1519-92) passed this tradition on to the next, his own son, Eitoku (1543-90), who established a new heroic style. Patronized by Oda Nobunaga (1534-82) and then Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-98), Eitoku produced monumental works at various rulers' castles and mansions. Responding to the demands of both patronage and architecture, Eitoku created a new, magnificent and brilliant style of painting on gold-foil backgrounds kinpeki shouhekiga. Huge trees, regal animals such as tigers, hawks and lions, as well as Chinese figural themes became part of these aggressive and confident designs. A representative example of Eitoku's grand style is the pair of huge screens called the "Chinese Lions" (Karajishi-zu) Imperial Collection. Eitoku also employed genre themes. A pair of screens of the "Scenes In and Around Kyoto" (Rakuchuu rakugai-zu) Uesugi collection, was recorded to have been presented by Nobunaga to General Uesugi Kenshin (1530-78) in 1574. It is often cited as a forerunner of genre painting as developed in the 17c. Other early Kanou artists who employed genre themes included Kanou Hideyori (d.1557) "Maple Viewing of Mt Takao"; (Takao kanpuu-zu) Tokyo National Museum), Naganobu (1577-1654) "Merrymaking Under the Cherry Blossoms" (Kaka yuuraku-zu) Tokyo National Museum and Naizen (1570-1616) "Houkoku Festival" (Houkoku sairei-zu) Houkoku Jinja Kyoto). Two major Kanou artists of the late 16c were Mitsunobu (1561-1608), Eitoku's son, and Sanraku (1559-1635), Eitoku's disciple. These painters did not continue their master's monumental style but worked in their own manner, characterized by more fragmented compositions, quieter moods, delicacy, elegance and decorativeness. Sanraku's heir, Sansetsu (1589-1651), became the leader of the Kanou school in Kyoto Kyouganou (1631-97), Sansetsu's son, is most famous as the author of the HONCHOU GASHI one of the earliest biographical histories of the artists of Japan. It was Mitsunobu and his followers who started to serve Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616). Mitsunobu twice went to Edo, where the Tokugawa government was established in 1603. The major Kanou artist of the early Edo period was Tan'yuu (1602-74), Mitsunobu's nephew, a child prodigy who became the first official painter to the Tokugawa shogunate in 1617 at the age of 16. Tan'yuu with his brothers Naonobu (1607-50) and Yasunobu (1614-85) worked to decorate two magnificent structures built at the time: Nijoujou Kyoto, in 1626 and the Jourakuden of Nagoyajou in 1634. Tan'yuu created a unique style, particularly in ink painting, which was characterized by the use of wide empty space, plain composition and refined brushwork and was to be influential for a long time. In the mid-17c Tan'yuu's brothers also became official painters for the Tokugawa family, and thus the core of the Kanou school moved to Edo. In Edo there were four major branches oku-eshi and twelve minor branches omote-eshi of the Kanou school employed by the shogunate. In addition, many daimyou employed artists in the same mould who were in the most part able students and followers of the upper level Kanou artists. The various Kanou painters thus secured a virtual monopoly of the commisions among the Tokugawa military elite. Some artists trained in the Kanou ateliers, however, were not patronized and opened shops in towns michiganou and formed the level of the Kanou organization. Some were allowed to use the Kanou family name, while others used their own family names. The Kanou school overwhelmed the world of Edo painting. All who had any ambition in painting came to a greater or lesser degree under the influence of the school. Kanou painting in the latter half of the Edo period was characterized by the eclectic manner originated by Tan'yuu with additional elements derived from Rinpa works and even touches of naturalism. Other features of the school include the practices of repeating the same subject matter and copying their masters' works in order to both polish their skills and maintain the school's tradition. Minutely codified formulations extending even to the manner of holding and moving the brush were passed down from master to pupil. The school eventually became so orthodox and dogmatic that progressive painters, while receiving some training from Kanou painters, often disassociated themselves from the school in the end. Among the painters who had dropped out from the Kanou organization, Kusumi Morikage (act. mid-17c) and Hanabusa Itchou (1652-1724) are especially well-known. Although the Kanou school lost official patronage after the beginning of the Meiji period (1868), several artists with strong connections to the Kanou school rose to prominance. Kanou Hougai (1828-88), Hashimoto Gahou (1835-1908) and Kawanabe Gyousai (1831-89) all served for years as Kanou school painters before developing their own styles and professional careers on an independent basis.

CHANOYU

Lit. the hot water for tea. Also known as sadou or chadou. The ritual art of preparing and drinking green tea. Chanoyu has been an integral part of Japanese culture since the 15c, an important well-spring of native aesthetics, and a major inspiration for the development of new styles of ceramics, architecture, garden design, decorative arts and painting. Chanoyu has also been a dominant force in connoisseurship and collecting, and has come to be closely linked with the aesthetic concepts of, simple taste wabi and suki. Tea drinking originated in China where it was associated with pharmacology and Daoist beliefs in alchemy and immortality. Lu Yu's (d.804) Treatise on Tea (Ch: Chajing, Jp: CHAKEI , trans. F.R.Carpenter, The Classic of Tea, Boston, Little Brown, 1974) outlined the many virtues of tea as well as explaining its history, the proper method of preparation and the attendant aesthetic of drinking it. Although compressed tea dancha was drunk in Japan for medical purposes since the Nara period (8c), it was in the 9c that courtiers drank tea during social gatherings and priests drank it at the conclusion of sutra readings ceremonies. In the late 11c the priest Joujin (1011-81) brought back tea bowls *chawan from Song dynasty China, and shortly after that the first powdered tea matcha was imported. The priest Eisai (1141-1215), after studying in China, returned to Japan with a new enthusiasm for tea drinking as an adjunct to Buddhist practice. In addition to planting tea, Eisai wrote KISSA YOUJOUKI in 1214, propagating the practice of tea because it preserves health, sharpens the mind, promotes ethical behavior, and leads to spiritual understanding. The book also explains the etiquette of tea preparation and drinking as Eisai learned it in China. Although tea drinking was formalized as monastic practice in some Zen ‘T temples, reportedly as an aid against drowsiness during meditation, by the first-half of the 14c the aesthetic dimensions of tea began to emerge. The expansion in tea drinking was facilitated by tea gatherings chayoriai in which the participants would attempt to distinguish the provenance of different teas based on taste and aroma. These tea-guessing contests, or toucha, were usually part of extravagant parties that featured alcohol, banqueting, music, dance, and poetry composition. The extravagant nature of these affairs earned them the name basara from the Sanshrit vajra or "diamond," implying excess. Basara style tea gatherings featured the conspicuous display of Japanese and particularly Chinese treasures karamono (Literally "Chinese things." The term is especially common in chanoyu to designate paintings, ceramics, lacquerware, textiles and other crafts, but has been used in a variety of contexts since the 8c. The appeal of karamono, as distinct from wamono or Japanese objects, is rooted in a fascination with the exoticism and prestige of Chinese culture. However, many karamono were not produced in China but came from Korea or other regions. Reverence for karamono is often associated with Ashikaga Yoshimasa (1436-90) whose collection of them was unsurpassed.) in the formal reception rooms zashiki. The decoration of the zashiki, called zashikikazari is illustrated in several painted handscrolls emaki of the period such as Boki-e (1351, Nishihonganji, Kyoto). The need for a room to hold literary and artistic gatherings led to the development of the 'gathering room' kaisho. The taste for Chinese artifacts fueled trade with Ming China and engendered the conspicuous collecting of Chinese and Korean ceramics and lacquer, particularly Song dynasty tenmoku (Ch: tianmu) tea bowls tenmoku jawan, as well as Song and Yuan paintings sougenga by artists such as Muqi (Jp: Mokkei, late 13c) and Liang Kai (Jp: Ryo Kai, early 13c). The basara type of tea party reached its height in the Kitayama cultural era Kitayama bunka. The large number of Chinese articles that flowed into Japan for display on the tea-utensil stand daisu brought about the need to authenticate genuine works. During the Higashiyama epoch Higashiyama bunka connoisseurs known as douboushuu (A title of artistic or cultural advisors in the Ashikaga shogunate, established about the time of Yosimitsu (r.1358-1408). At first the douboushuu were attendants in charge of miscellaneous personal affairs for the shoguns, but they became cultural advisors to the Ashikaga household as well. Duties included acting as curators of Chinese paintings and objects in the shogunal collections, and as experts on the repair and authentication of works of art. In addition, many of them displayed various talents, such as painting, and acting as masters of noh and kyougen drama, the incense ceremony, poetry writing, flower arrangement, various crafts, and garden design. The Chinese characters for "ami", from the name of the Buddha Amida, are found quite frequently among the names of douboushuu indicating a connection with the Jishuu Buddhist sect (although it would be incorrect to say that all douboushuu were adherents of the sect.) The social status of the douboushuu was not particularly high, and among their ranks were some who were referred to as kawaramono ("riverbed people", or "riverbank riffraff"). This derogatory term referred not only to outcasts and beggars but also actors and other entertainers, all of whom belonged to a landless segment of society on which no taxes were levied. They adopted the guise of a buddhist monk by becoming a priest, they were exempt from the caste system. Thus the douboushuu were seen as outside the strict heirarchy of rank based on birth and they could gain uniquely privilaged access and influence in the upper reaches of society. Among the early Ami artists, the master garden-designer Zen'ami (1393-?) who served under Yoshimasa (1435-90) seems to have come from such a background. Ryuuami the flower-arranger, and Chouami (?), the craftsman were also early Ami artists. In addition, three generations of painters and connoisseurs of art known in modern times as the Ami school (Amiha provided a new direction for development in Japanese ink painting during the late 16c and early 17c. In the Edo period the douboushuu had certain advisory and miscellaneous duties in service to the bakufu government and various major daimyou, but did not hold the influential positions which they had enjoyed during the earlier shogunate.) decided on the proper arrangement of tea wares and made catalogs of famous collections, such as the GYOMOTSU ON-E MOKUOKU. The "taste for Chinese treasures" karamono suki also led to their copy by Japanese artists, stimulating domestic ceramic and painting production. Chanoyu of the Higashiyama period also engendered a new environment for its drinking: the shoin, a room fitted with tatami mats, a decorative alcove tokonoma, staggered shelves chigaidana, and built-in table tsukeshoin. The Doujinsai shoin built for Ashikaga Yoshimasa ­(1436-90) in the Tougudou at his Higashiyama retreat in 1486 is considered the prototype of the shoin. The last decades of the 15c saw the further development of chanoyu away from basara practices as the tea master Murata Jukou (1422-1502) sought to integrate the taste for Chinese articles with the appreciation of more rustic native wares. This finding of beauty in things simple, austere, irregular and imperfect, was termed wabi. Jukou's follower Murata Souju, who held his tea gatherings in a small thatched hermitage *souan in the center of Kyoto, created a new taste that was soon adopted by wealthy merchants in the port of Sakai ä. Takeno Jouou (1502-55), originally a practioner of Japanese linked verse, renga, extended the concept of wabi along the ideals of eremitism long expressed in medieval literature by reducing his souan tea room to four and a half mats yojouhan and leaving many of the building materials in their natural state. Wabicha‚ or "wabi-style tea" reached its apogee in the late creations of another Sakai merchant, Sen Rikyuu (1522-91), who eventually served as tea master and confidant to the shogun, Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-98). Rikyuu used his position to champion wabicha, further reducing the souan in size and decor, patronizing new types of native ceramics such as rakuyaki, and making other kinds of tea implements out of unfinished bamboo. Rikyuu also added a spiritual aspect to chanoyu, linking the practice of chanoyu with the practice of Zen. In the Momoyama period chanoyu became increasingly popular with powerful military patrons, serving as proof of their cultural hegemony, a locus for political deal-making, and as an artistic retreat from a brutalized society. Furuta Oribe (1544-1615), a disciple of Rikyuu altered the direction of chanoyu, expanding the size of the souan, adding subsidiary rooms kusari-no-ma so it resembled a shoin, and utilizing new tea wares regarded as oddities hyougemono because of their bold designs and assymetrical, unique, shapes. Oribe also employed foreign (nanban designs and objects, adding to the heterdox and radical character of his aesthetic. Often called daimyoucha because of its supposed popularity among military patrons, Oribe's taste more accurately reflects the highly mannered spirit of the early 17c, epitomized by the word kabuku meaning "not to stand straight." The next major development in chanoyu was affected by Oribe's disciple Kobori Enshuu (1579-1647), who furthered the concept of daimyoucha, allying it with Confucian ideals of loyalty, and synthesized it with elegant, literary taste of his kireisabi asethetic. Like Oribe, Enshuu was a daimyou who served as tea master to the Tokugawa shogunate, but Enshuu's close connections with Zen priests, aristocrats, and his experience as a building and garden designer both broadened his approach to tea and helped disseminate his ideas in a variety of media. Enshuu not only wrought a reevalution of vast styles through his selection of new meibutsu, but significantly altered the design of the chashitsu, the type and display of tea wares, the function and style of calligraphy and painting, as well as the appearance and role of garden. Enshuu's innovations were borrowed and transformed by later tea masters such as Kanamori Souwa (1584-1656) and Katagiri Sekishuu (1605-73). Sen Soutan (1578-1658), although the reviver of Rikyuu's wabicha and often described solely in terms of the harsh aesthetic of gokuwabi or "wabi in the extreme," was also influenced by the "kirei taste of Kan'ei culture." As heir to the Rikyuu tradition of wabicha, Soutan enjoyed great popularity, and after his death three of his sons founded their own lineages which continue to disseminate wabicha throughtout Japan until the present day.

CHANOMA

Lit. "tearoom." A Edo period communal living room usually containing a hearth (irori and often situated close to the earth-floored area doma. Its character and use varied according to the scale of the structure.

1  In relatively large residences of middle ranking warriors or leading farmers and merchants, chanoma was principally used by the women of the household or by female servants as a kind of common room, where meals were taken, some food prepared and informal conversation took place around the hearth. In the Kansai district in particular the term was often used to refer to the maidservants' room.

2  In smaller residences chanoma was often used interchangeably with ima or daidokoro to refer to the principal communal living room.

3  In north eastern Japan, along the Japan Sea coast from the prefectures of Niigata to Shimane, in Shikoku and in parts of Nagano prefecture, the term was used in traditional vernacular houses minka to refer to a large room adjacent to, and often opened to, the earth-floored area. Usually the room contained an hearth around which the family gathered for meals. The chanoma was often open to the rafters, allowing smoke to escape through a smokehole kemuridashi in the roof. Originally the floor was exposed timber boarding without mats tatami. Also, the family's Shinto and Buddhist altars kamidana and butsudan were often located in this room.

CHANOYU-no-DOUGU

Implements necessary for the tea ceremony. Generally classified according to: (1) implements to be displayed in alcove, (2)Procedures and implements used for tea ceremony (3)cake dishes and servers, (4) implements for making a fire, (5) implements for handling charcoal, (6) implements used for lunch served in a tea ceremony room. Among these, one to four are of most importance.

1  At a formal tea ceremony a scroll jiku is hung in the alcove tokonoma, from the beginning of the ceremony until nakadachi. The scroll may be replaced at the recess by a vase hanaire of flowers hung on a nail in the center wall of the alcove. Such a formal tea ceremony is rare now and usually a scroll and flower vase are placed together in the alcove. The flower vase is either hung on a special nail called the flower nail hanakugi, on the alcove pillar, or placed on a wooden plaque, shiki-ta, on the straw mat in the alcove. This method of decoration is called multi-decoration morokazari.

2  Tea procedures rank from the most formal shin daisu, to a semi-formal method gyou to the informal wabi sou. The implements used for them and the decorations change accordingly. However, in each case, the implements are displayed and must be positioned so that the host can perform the ceremony with ease. The host is seated on the rear half of the mat. If the fireplace, dero, is on the front corner of the host's mat, usually he is seated diagonally toward it. When the fire box iriiro or furo is used, the host is seated facing the firebox so the front edge of his knees are at the center of the long side of the mat. In the most formal cases, the stand for utensils used for the tea ceremony daisu, is placed in the center of front half of the host's mat. A stove, furo, is used from May to October and a hearth cut in the floor kiriawase-no-furo is used from November to April. Kettles chanoyugama are made in a variety of shapes including circular, square, bag-shaped and Fuji-mountain shape. Lids are often made in unusual shapes. There is a stand for the kettle lid futaoki. Kettle stands kamashiki are made of bamboo or mino paper. A kettle hanger is called jizaikagi. A slop basin mizukoboshi Water containers, mizusashi are made in a great variety of shapes. There is also a ladle stand shakudate, a ladle hishaku and a pair of fire tongs hibashi. A set that includes all the utensils named above is called kaigu. On top of the daisu is a tea caddy chaki, tea bowl chawan, and a small cloth or napkin chakin. The tea whisk chasen, is placed inside it, and a teaspoon chashaku is placed across it. A daisu like shelf tanamono, is shorter than the rectangular daisu.

CHANOYUGAMA

A cauldron, iron pot, or kettle. Also called kama or chagama.

A tea kettle is used exclusively for boiling water at a tea ceremony, and is considered the ceremony's most essential vessel. It differs from other vessels in that its mouth is small. Most are made of cast iron but copper ones are not unknown. The earliest kettle for tea is said to have been made in the early 14c for the priest, Myoue, at the temple Kouzanji, by a master kettle-maker in Ashiya, Fukuoka prefecture. From this time until the end of the Muromachi period (1392-1568) aside from Ashiya kettles ashiyagama kettles made in Sano, Tochigi prefecture, tenmyougama were most in demand. By the late 16c, there were many tea masters who ordered vessels according to their own preferences. Because the tea ceremony developed in the Kansai area, many artisans went to Kyoto to produce kettles at the Sanjou kilns. Kettles that passed from generation to generation have special names derived from the history of the owner, the kettles shape, pattern, mouth or finish. Kettles are usually round with rounded, squarish or sloping shoulders. An extensive array of patterns exist including: rough skin arehada sandy skin sunahada or tortoise shell patterns. Others may be finished with Chinese style mountains or rivers, one of the seven gods of fortune, plants, animals and even cloissone. Kettle mouths have diverse shapes. Some are turned inward, others outward, while others are wide or narrow or notched. Two loops are cast on the shoulder to attach rings when the kettle is to be hung or carried. Often kettles have the shape of an ogre face, but they may have the face of a biting lion, distant mountains, pine cones, or bamboo shoots. Kettle bottoms are rounded, flat and round, or flat and square. The tea ceremony kettle lids chanoyugama futa, are made of cast iron, and forged at the same time as the body to match the bottoms perfectly. However, lids can also be made of bronze, copper, brass, silver and even from an ancient bronze mirror. Lids have a variety of names depending on their shape. Moributa are high in the center while usumoributa are slightly raised but lower than moributa. Lids with straight flat tops, are called ichimonjibuta. Lids that are high around the rim but with the center indented are called sukuibuta. If the lid rim projects and the top is flat it is known as kakegobuta. When indented where the knob is placed, the lid is called emyoubuta. Lids also may have small dots embossed on the top, ishimebuta, or be decorated with a thin linear pattern itomebuta. The oldest kettles were usually cast to be used with the portable brazier furo, and those intended for use on the ordinary fixed hearth, ro, were set on a trivet or hung on a tripod.

CHASEN

chajimi hosaki karami-ito jiku fushi

A tea whisk used to whip powdered green tea, matcha, and hot water in a tea bowl until it froths. The whisk is made from one piece of bamboo about 2 to 2 1/2 cm thick and from 9cm to 12cm long. Near one end is a node. A little beyond the node on the longer end, string is interlaced, karami-ito to hold the longer ends which are split finely into a varying number of extremely thin strips. The string is intertwined to create two rows of strips. Those on the outer edge have their tips curved inwardly, and those pulled toward the center have their tips curved out. This creates a double tipped whisk. Whisks are classified by the number of tips: those having 80 to 120 or more are called multi-tipped; those with fewer are designated medium or sparse. White bamboo is preferred by the Ura Senke School; sooty bamboo by the Omote Senke School; green or purplish bamboo by the Kankyuu'an School.

CHAWAN

Also usuchaki or natsume. A tea caddy or container for storing powdered weak green tea. The weak-tea container is frequently made of lacquered wood with matching lid, but bamboo and ceramic examples also exist. The oldest type was cylindrical with the top and bottom rounded. Many chaki resemble the shape of a ripe olive or a Chinese date and therefore called natsume. The usual size is 7cm high and 7cm in diameter. However, there are some chaki, called hiranatsume, which are larger in diameter but shallow. Many chaki are lacquered with gold and silver designs. Therefore, to protect the surface they are kept in special bags called shifuku. A container for keeping strong tea is called chaire.
A tea caddy, usually ceramic, used to hold strong tea at a tea ceremony. Its dimensions vary, ranging from 3-15cm high, with a diameter of about 4-8cm. First brought to Japan in the 13c, the most valued chaire were made in Southern Song and Yuan China and thus considered karamono in Japan. Usually a chaire is put in a bag shifuku, made of very fine material, such as high quality silk gold brocade, damask or striped silk called kantou, from China, and carried into the tea ceremony room. The gorgeous material of the bag was also appreciated at a tea ceremony. Chaire were made in Japanese kilns from the Momoyama period. The methods of making the bottom of the tea caddy were as follows:

1  itokiri: The clay bottom of the tea caddy is separated from the potter's wheel by using string that leaves a spiral mark. Japanese and Chinese tea caddies can be distinguished by these marks. Seto objects have a right ward string cut, considered the normal string cutsince a potter's wheel turns clockwise, but Chinese objects have a left-ward side string cut because their potter's wheels turn counter clockwise.

2  uzu-itokiri: If clay is removed from the potter's wheel with a nail or spatula, a spiral pattern will result from a gentle, extra turn of the wheel. This spiral is an important feature in the tea ceremony.

3  maru-itokiri: Related to itokiri. A string line, which is created on the bottom of the tea caddy when it is removed from the pottery wheel, this technique sometimes used for the most exquisite of tea caddies.

4  wa-itokiri: To carve many concentric circles with a thin needle on the bottom of formed clay. The word may also be used for the pattern itself.

CHASHAKU

a)tsuyu  b)kaisaki  c) hi
d)fushi  e) ottori   f)kiridome

Lit. tea scoop. A spoon-like utensil used to transfer powdered tea from a tea container chaki to the guest's tea bowl at a tea ceremony. Originally, a chashaku was made of ivory and used as a medicine spoon, but after the mid 17c the tea masters preferred to make it out of bamboo. Other materials were also used, including mulberry wood, tortoise shell and silver. When the techniques for manipulating bamboo improved, chashaku took on various shapes depending on the preferences of the tea masters. The average length is between 19-21 1/2 cm, with a width of about 1cm. Its tip is bent and rounded to make the scoop. This spoon-like utensil is carved along the vertial growth of the bamboo. The rest is thinned gradually and the bottom edge is cut straight. It is of practical use but is so perfectly created that is a miniature work of art. There are three types of tea scoops. The formal tea scoop is made principally from ivory or from a smooth jointless piece of the bamboo. The semi-formal tea scoop is made of mulberry or bamboo with the joint at the handle end. Informal tea scoops are made of bamboo with the joint in or near the middle. The informal tea scoop is the most common and was probably created by Sen Rikyuu (1522-91). The names of the various parts of a tea scoop include: the tip tsuyu, the paddle tip or bowl kaisaki, the groove hi, the bend tame, the joint fushi, upper part of joint fushiue,  lower part of joint, fushishita, the scraped out back of the joint arigoshi, the handle ottori, and the end of the scoop, kiridome. A tube-like case oritame,  used to store the tea scoop is made of bamboo. Often a name is inscribed on the case.

CHAKIN

A small napkin used at a tea ceremony for wiping the tea bowl. Generally it is made from a linen cloth 30cm long x 12.5cm wide, with the top and bottom edges having a half centimeter sewn border, reducing it to 11.5cm wide. When in use, the chakin is folded lengthwise into thirds. Then, the long edge is folded in half and puffed up before it is folded again in half. Finally, its edges are folded a little to adjust the shape.

WABI

An aesthetic ideal that finds surpassing beauty and deep significance in what is humble or commonplace and appears natural or artless. This conception of beauty as simple and austere is found in poetry, and came to be the dominant philosophy in the practice of tea or chanoyu, often called wabicha or "wabi style tea." Deriving from the verb wabu "to languish" and the adjective wabishi "spiritual loneliness," wabi was used first in early poetry to decribe the "despair of a forlorn lover" and later came to denote the barren circumstances of the poet-recluse, it was not truly influential until it was absorbed into the ideal of sabi. The originally negative connotations changed with the development particularly under Zen Buddhist influences of a positive view of seclusion from the mundane in the locus of the hermit's hut. In much literature of the early medieval period we find this aesthetic of an artless beauty based on the appreciation of the imperfect and irregular aspects of nature.
Tea master Murata Jukou (1423-1502) was an early exponent of wabicha who adopted literary terms such as hie, chill, and kare, withered, to express the bleak, monochromatic appeal of the simple domestic wares he introduced into the practice tea. Students of Jukou also began holding tea gatherings in a thatched-hut souan, tea houses chashitsu, modeled on the hermit's grass hut. Takeno Jouou (1502-55) is said to have emphasized ethical and metaphysical aspects of wabi, calling it free of arrogance. Jouou also cited Fujiwara Teika's (1162-1241) waka "looking out there are neither blossoms nor crimson leaves, an old hut by the bay in evening" as conveying its essence. The integration of wabi into chanoyu was further developed by Sen Rikyuu  (1522-91) in his encouragement of the use of the smallest possible space of the two-mat thatched-hut tearoom, simple, rustic tea wares such as ‚’akuyaki, and the unadorned and simple forms of bamboo flower containers and other utensils. Rikyuu and his heirs sought in the tea hut the locus for a Zen-like experience of freedom from the mind. This aesthetic which finds richness in poverty, beauty in simplicity, and enlightment in artistic discipline has been termed wabisuki, a fusion of wabi with the word suki  or aesthetic liking. Wabisuki reached its ultimate stage in the gokuwabi "wabi in the extreme," as practiced by tea-master such as Rikyuu's grandson Sen Soutan (1578-1658).
The influence of the wabi aesthetic is clearly seen in chashitsu architecture, ceramics, and other arts directly connected with chanoyu. Wabi taste also played a role in the connoisseurship and collecting of older paintings and works of calligraphy. Moreover, wabi, as dominant aesthetic of late 15c and 16c, exerted an influence on contemporary painting, particularly the rough and "natural" style of soutai or "grass style" (shin gyou sou) ink painting, suibokuga.

SABI

1 An idea of beauty particularly important in the tea ceremony and haiku poetry. The beauty of materials or spaces which have been worn down over time to become withered and aged. Seen particularly in teahouses, tea utensils and tea gardens. Initially a medieval aesthetic ideal, sabi included aspects of resignation, age, decay, loneliness, detachment, and tranquility. The noun sabi derives from the verb sabu "to wane" and the adjective sabishii "lonely", and also sounds the same as the noun sabi meaning "rust" or an "aged quality." Fujiwara Shunzei (1114-1204) used sabi as a critical quality to judge in poetry, where it refered to a mood of desolation. Sabi can also be seen in the feeling of beautiful loneliness described by hermit poets such as Saigyou (1118-1190). For 15c writers such as Zeami (1363-1445) and Shinkei (1406-75), sabi became a kind of cold beauty associated with the positive qualities of kare "withered" and hie "chill." Its presence can be detected in a range of arts during the 14 and 15c. In the late 17c, a modified interpretation of sabi was particularly important to haiku ”o‹å poets it was naturally an important aspect of haiga or haiku painting, and indirectly influenced other styles of painting related to haiku. This tendency was represented by Matsuo Bashou (1644-94) and others of his generation.

2The colour acquired by rocks in a garden which have been weathered and corroded over time. In the Edo period, this coloring was sometimes artificially applied to rocks.

SUKI

Lit. Aesthetic liking. Most simply love for elegant things, particularly poetry (waka and the objects of the practice of tea (chanoyu), but, at a deeper level, a paradoxical ideal that seeks ultimately to transcend taste and aesthetics. In the Heian period suki generally referred to amorous adventure with the implication that this was an elegant accomplishment to be carried out in a refined manner. In the Kamakura period suki suggested a devotion to art, particularly poetry, and the pursuit of it with a deep sensitivity often acheived by severing ties with secular society and living as a hermit. In waka treatises such as FUKUROSOUSHI (ca 1156), suki is often used to describe the extreme or eccentric behavior of waka poets devoted to their art. In the HOSSHINSHUU of 1216, Kamo no Choumei (1155-1216) describes suki as solitude, poverty, purity produced by closeness to nature, and freedom from worldly defilement as a means of realizing the impermanence of existence and thus achieving enlightenment. Devotion to artistic accomplishment became concomitant with a desire for buddhahood. Thus adoption to suki aesthetics led to detachment from mundane life and to an emphasis on the retreat/hermitage as the locus of artistic creation. This taste for "aesthetic reclusion" (suki-no-tonsei ) greatly influenced the development of chanoyu. By the early 15c the term suki was applied to men of tea chasuki (lit. tea enthusiast), as well as poets. Suki was also applied to specific styles or tastes within chanoyu. For example, the taste for Chinese objects (karamono) was termed karamono suki, while the taste for native things was wamono suki. Suki was used to describe the small, thatched-hut (souan type of tearoom. By the early 16c., the term suki alone was synonomous with chanoyu. Moreover, the ideal of suki formed the conceptual basis of the style of tea practice devoted to orderliness, simplicity, and aesthetic appreciation exemplified in the term wabi‚ used by the great tea-masters Murata Jukou (d.1502), Takeno Jouou (1502-55), and Sen no Rikyuu (1522-91). Suki also may include a sense of Buddhist compassion. The devotion to wabi style tea in the late 16c created the term wabisuki. Tea masters were cha-no-sukisha or simply sukisha . Tea wares were called sukimono. Tea architecture became sukiya. The word suki when used since the Edo period (around the 17c) in relation to chanoyu is usually written with the characters. (literally "fortune" and "oddness"). Two influential Edo period chanoyu treatises, NANBOUROKU (1690) and ZENCHAROKU (1826) , maintain that the older useage of suki (also read konomi) meaning "to love" or "to covet" remained in the practices of treasuring favorite tea utensils. Suki has come to mean refinement tinged with eccentricity, the sukisha as someone who does not bend to wordly concerns, sukimono as assymetrical and (while appearing spontaneous) carefully contrived objects. This aspect of suki encouraged the appreciation and patronage of ceramics such as Bizen, Oribe or Iga wares. The suki aesthetic seeks to acheive the imperfect, natural beauty of wabi through controlled imperfection called "naturalness." Thus ceramic glaze effects that appear spontaneous or simple rustic architectural finishes and decoration result from a rigorous and by the late 17c., carefully codified selection and refinement of techniques.

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